西班牙数学函数发展史外文翻译资料

 2023-01-11 10:01

西班牙数学函数发展史

Elena Ausejo and Mariano Hormigen

摘要:数学的编史在西班牙有一段长期的不均衡的历史记载,例如早在1086年,美国的一位叫做Sacid al-Andalusi的学者,写了一本书叫做《SacidA1-Andalusi 1935》,内容包括数学们家的作品和他们的讨论成果。这部作品尤其反映了一个情况:同西班牙一样,伊比利亚半岛部分人也已经给予了数学高度重视。然而由于基督教增加,使很多早期伊斯兰教文化最终取得了成功, 大大减少了科学和史编在安达卢斯书里的地位。

关键词:数学; 战争; 发展; 自由;函数

一些参考要素:

数学的编史在西班牙有一段长期的不均衡的历史记载,例如早在1086年,美国的一位叫做Sacid al-Andalusi的学者,写了一本书叫做《SacidA1-Andalusi 1935》,内容包括数学们家的作品和他们的讨论成果。这部作品反映了一个情况:同西班牙一样,伊比利亚半岛人也已经给予了数学高度重视。然而由于基督教出现,使很多早期伊斯兰教文化最终取得了很大的发展, 大大降低了科学史编在安达卢斯书里的地位。

在接下来的几个世纪,这一损失被认为是无关紧要的。西班牙由于自己对美国的征服,可以在美国得到在数学方面的任何需要。但是,当财富开始慢慢减少,南美的银子快要耗尽的时候,非常有必要考虑新的选择,这种情况也促进了数学早期的观念和思想的形成。

该冲突出现在19世纪的自由主义国家西班牙,并没有影响精密科学的形成。一般来说,那些被高估的科学都是顶端的科学。贵族政府、神圣人员和教士的基本假设是:西班牙帝国曾经是一个世界超级大国,控制着大片的领土,并且大量地提拔优秀的知识分子,仅仅在科学和数学领域,其他国家的科学家跟数学家十分羡慕西班牙人。国王支持这些主张,激发西班牙人大量创作,西班牙的几何学被认为是他们国家的标志。因此,在君主专制政体的西班牙的领导下,每件与科学有关的事意义都是不言而喻的,都是具有保留意义的。

另一方面,有些知识分子和职业人员对西班牙所发生的事情持不满态度,他们发现研究报告是历史编纂项目的一部分,是一本致力于数学史的书。值得注意的是,研究报告是在哲学、神学、文化和艺术上的成功,但不是在科学和数学上的成功,他们以此作为支持大量的外国作家认为西班牙绝对政府已经在科学上失败的证据。科学确实是现代世界不可缺少的一部分,西班牙为了国家的生存需要加快科学的发展。就数学方面来说,像在1806年发现的射线观测,只有在《书籍的种类和裁剪几何学》这本书里提到。 在不同的形式下,科学发展逐渐成为聋子的对话,而不是真正变成国家间的论战,在那里几乎全是历史学家看不起的数学或科学,这样的论战是没有结果的。一般来说,当西班牙的数学研究成果少了分析讨论,科学家与历史学家也会在交流上变得封闭起来,就这样保持了十几年。

也许这样对19世纪的科学史编是有好处的,其中最杰出的西班牙和聚图,和最粗鄙的西班牙传统权利的典型都写在涉及西班牙象征性科学的书籍里。当谈论到宗教在16世纪的行为: “这里没有科学的压迫,但有大量犹太人的迫害,较少的摩尔人,轻微的新教徒的迫害,几乎没有什么女巫和大量不良神职人员”。“当他指出颓废的原因是他自己导致的时,贸易下降,业绩下跌,这是没办法的。因为本质的问题,虽然他们不能编制亚麻制品,但是要杀死异教徒。” 可是,从另一方面,有人认为,科学未能在战略性储备石油的西班牙境内,因为埃切加赖的原因导致了西班牙只有鞭、铁、血、祈祷、股份和烟雾。自然地,在辩证纠纷的轰鸣声中出现了这种激烈的元素。所以,圣地亚哥拉面辎卡哈尔(1852年至1934年)和著名作家胡,安巴莱拉(1824年至1905年)在其他欧洲国家造成了宗教极端事件。

“在法国,关于刚刚圣巴塞洛缪可怕的夜晚,不包括战争的恐怖,随着宗教法庭的败落,这里将有更多的宗教信仰受害者,夏克招供的数量也不相同,在17世纪只有不幸的巫婆被活活烧死”。有了这样的论点,历史分析的中心问题成了顺序问题。帝国国防发言者先后伪装成使徒、奴役,温和的自由主义者,宣传保守,或简单的右翼民族主义,西班牙是在世界上有这种观点的国家之一。 这成为了教师梅嫩德斯佩拉尤在1876年9月30日给他同事卢戈的一封信中作为审议西班牙科学论战的催化剂。

[梅嫩德斯佩拉尤,1953到1954年,第一卷 14-15]

“如果我们的科学是贫乏的,为什么解释它的书和医生在任何地方都那么好被接受, 这不能证明我们是落在后面的,而是处在前面的。 ”

何埃切加赖(1832年至1916年)坚定地宣布改革运动,把科学作为斗争的领域,因为西班牙在这个领域是站在最后的。“数学科学不能归功于我们任何人 ,它不是我们的,西班牙没有经过任何努力是没有发言权的”。 在这个状况下指出智慧在西班牙数学历史编纂发展中是有价值的,与国家的资源和情况符合,但把数学发展最为第一那几乎是不可能的,.到最后达到很高地位也是不可能的。

这个框架使我们能更仔细地了解西班牙数学历史编纂 ,在最近二百年期间,它实际上已经被人们连续介绍研究 。在19世纪西班牙数学的历史基本上是三个方面,重要的研究机构,例如早期的科学院,作者如佐伊加西加尔德亚诺(1846年至1924年),或拉雷耶斯普雷斯(1863年至1922年);数学培养的一般历史: 在19世纪的和20的世纪初期另外两个有关特权的主题研究,能很好地符合这工作。在16世纪和17世纪西班牙的数学价值得到了提高,数学知识的进步加快了19世纪中期和最后内战开始的这段时间内国家工业的发展。

关于16世纪西班牙数学家争论的问题,正如其他欧洲国家在文艺复兴时期一样,数学主要应用在西班牙的航行中,以及炮兵工程学院。1672年由菲利普二世为了商业算术而写了《数学》,欧几里得的一些书被翻译,仪器制造中也用到了数学。虽然这些优点是不一样的,但是参照工作是必不可少的。其中包括文艺复兴时期的大多数文本,西班牙文艺复兴时期的研究。但是到了19世纪末,西班牙强调日常工作,开始了一个新的时期。

自由主义国家数学

在西班牙,现代数学可以说是为了配合自由经济、政治崛起和教育体制的改革,从旧的制度推进到新的制度,持续了近一个世纪。它从费迪南德六世的统治开始( 1756年至1768年)到查尔斯三世(1768年至1788年)结束,克劳迪奥莫亚诺(1857)法正式宣布数学的法律地位,使得人们试图在各个领域招募更多更好的数学家必须给他们良好的社会声望。但是,市民认为必须采取一个更微妙的方式,而不是简单地让数学为自己说话,同时利用在新兴科学的必要的地方。把数学史作为战略的一部分,可以解释的第一部分制度化阶段,它是西班牙19世纪数学发展的三分之一。另一个重要因素是皇家学院精确的基础定义,马德里(RACEFNM)在1847年规定物理和自然科学必须反映原始研究。或许是出于这个原因,皇家学院出现的最初几年,一些学者不敢触及更多的技术学科,虽然至少在西班牙历史主义科学肯定可以追溯到。这些后来努力的例子包括一个尼什海军,他是一个温和、开明、开放的海军,后来也是一个温和的自由派, 更倾向于维护宪法的科学。费尔南德斯纳瓦雷特是18世纪的数学天才,由于受到范盖拉对他的指导和研讨过有关西普里亚诺维梅尔卡蒂教授 ,德贝马萨雷多(1745年至1812年)教授和加布里耶西斯卡(1759年至1829年)的作品。或许也是因为他受到了良好的教育,国王要求他编写西班牙海军历史 。 数学对西班牙炮兵,工兵的建立和发展起到了关键作用。两个军事工程师, 安东尼奥热梅恩扎尔科斯德瓦里(1775年至1866年)和曼纽尔蒙特沃德(1868)两人均是科学院的创始人的核心成员,有关科学和数学史协会成立之际的发言人。第埃尔德拉斯科学院是用来对社会各阶层排序,蒙特沃德曾在这里工作, 后来学院被用来作为发表报告。蒙特沃德1853年,数学论文文献翻译目的是用来提高数学的社会声望。然而,这些发言也难逃枯燥在学术框架内工作,因此他们几乎完全缺乏独创性。 但大学并没有完全排除掉这一进程,例如,关于马德里哲学系教授弗朗西斯科特拉韦塞多(1786年至1861年) 在1855年捍卫他的博士论文。

不过,在19世纪下半叶开始,,西班牙的科学结构极其脆弱。但是,尽管财政困难,数学研究进展十分缓慢,一些专业的数学家开始增加。1891年以来出现的数学者普罗格, 编辑创始人加西加尔德亚诺,以及杂志的部分贡献者,使用了历史的数学方法来研究目前的主题(即三角形或射影几何)。无论是在加尔德亚诺的杂志和那些后来数学史 ,西班牙代始是代表。

在超过36年的独裁统治(1939年至1975年)后,虽然只有医学受到重要机构的支持,发展地不错外。数学只用在个人生产中,但仍有一些有价值的分离研究,或少数值得注意的学者。从1976年开始,数学研究在西班牙一直没间断过,。 随着数学的一般化和大众化, 现在的西班牙是一个广大的数学交流平台。

外文文献出处:N.T.M.(1999)013-020

1999 BirkhliuserVerlag,Basel

The History of Mathematics in Spain

Elena Ausejo and Mariano Hormigen

附外文文献原文

Some elements of reference

The historiography of mathematics in Spain has a long uneven history.For example, as early as 1086, Sacid al-Andalusi, a scholar from Toledo,wrote his Book on the Categories of Nations[SacidA1-Andalusi 1935],which includes discussion of mathematicians and their works. This work in particular reflects a serious level of attention given to historiography of mathematics in a part of the Iberian Peninsula already,regarded(although from afar)as Spain. The rise of Christianity, however,eventually succeeded in surpresing much of the previous Islamic cultural presence reducing significantly the place of science and historiography1 in al-Andalus.

Subsequently, for the next few centuries, this loss was not considered important; Spain, thanks to its conquests in the Americas, could simplypurchase whatever mathematics it needed. But when the wealth began to decline, and SouthAmerican silver was depleted, it was necessary toconsider new alternatives, which also prompted evaluation of who had articulated earlier concepts and ideas.

The conflicts which the formation of the liberal state in 19th century Spain did not overlook the exact sciences. Generally speaking, those who overvalued nationa l science were the crown, the aristocracy, the clergy and the defenders of the Old Rgime.Their basic assumption: the Spanish empire had once been a world superpower, controlling an enormous territory and promoting numerous intellectual efforts all of which were exceptional (the Golden Age). Only http://www.51lunwen.com/englishtranslation/in science and mathematics had the envy of Spains adversaries obscured the merits of Spa- nish geometricians. In support of such claims, enormous lists of authors and titles were produced whos

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Some elements of reference

The historiography of mathematics in Spain has a long uneven history.For example, as early as 1086, Sacid al-Andalusi, a scholar from Toledo,wrote his Book on the Categories of Nations[SacidA1-Andalusi 1935],which includes discussion of mathematicians and their works. This work in particular reflects a serious level of attention given to historiography of mathematics in a part of the Iberian Peninsula already,regarded(although from afar)as Spain. The rise of Christianity, however,eventually succeeded in surpresing much of the previous Islamic cultural presence reducing significantly the place of science and historiography1 in al-Andalus.

Subsequently, for the next few centuries, this loss was not considered important; Spain, thanks to its conquests in the Americas, could simplypurchase whatever mathematics it needed. But when the wealth began to decline, and SouthAmerican silver was depleted, it was necessary toconsider new alternatives, which also prompted evaluation of who had articulated earlier concepts and ideas.

The conflicts which the formation of the liberal state in 19th century Spain did not overlook the exact sciences. Generally speaking, those who overvalued nationa l science were the crown, the aristocracy, the clergy and the defenders of the Old Rgime.Their basic assumption: the Spanish empire had once been a world superpower, controlling an enormous territory and promoting numerous intellectual efforts all of which were exceptional (the Golden Age). Only http://www.51lunwen.com/englishtranslation/in science and mathematics had the envy of Spains adversaries obscured the merits of Spa- nish geometricians. In support of such claims, enormous lists of authors and titles were produced whose mere existence was accepted as a sign of their quality. As a result, it was taken as self-evident that everything -even science- had been good in Spain under the absolute monarchy, which should therefore be maintained.

On the other hand, there were intellectuals and professionals, unhappyabout what had happened to Spain in general, despite their personal comfort.They found notable successes in philosophy and theology, literature and art, but not in science and mathematics. They took the enormous lists of foreign authors as an evidence that in Spain the absolute state had failed in science. Assuming that science was indeed an indispensable part of the modern world, Spains general delay in its development had to be overcome for the countrys survival. As for mathematics, as Jose Echegaray observed in 1806, there are only 'books of sums and geometries of tailors 2in Spanish mathematics [Echegaray 1866, pp. 176].

The varying postures, apart from becoming a dialogue for the deaf, turned into some real national polemics where practically none of the contenders were historians of mathematics or science. The debate was so sterile that, in general, scientists and historians of science became spiritually blocked when faced with a serene analysis of the Spanish mathematical production. And it remained like this for manydecades.

Perhaps it would be good to remember some typical expressions of the scientific historiography of the 19th century. The most prolific and eminent Spanish polygraph, a genuine representative of the most coarse Spanish traditional right, Marcelino Men6ndez y Pelayo (1856-1912), wrote in his emblematic book on Spanish science (1887--8), when referring to the action of the Inquisition in the 16th century [Men6ndez Pelayo, 1953--4, vol. 2, p. 9]:

'Here there was no oppression for science; (...) but there was a great deal of persecution of Judaicians, less of Moriscos, a slight persecution of Protestants, almost nothing of witches and a lot of bad clergy (...)'.3

And when he refers to the causes of the decadence he reasons thus [Men6ndez Pelayo, 1953--4, vol. 2, p. 16]:

'After the trade had fallen, the industry fell, there were no arms for it, because the essential thing then (I am saying this with great truth) was not to weave linen, but to kill heretics'4 However, from the other side, it was argued that science had not been able to sprout in Spanish soil because [Echegaray, 1866, p. 184] here

'there were only whip, iron, blood, prayers, stakes and smoke'. 5 Naturally, in the roar of the dialectic dispute appeared elements which muffled such vehemence. Thus, Santiago Ram6n y Cajal (1852-1934) used a quotation from the already famous writer Juan Valera (1824-1905) on the effect of religious extremes in other European countries [Ram6n y Cajal, 1876, p. 388]:

“In France, not including the horrors of the civil wars, just on the horrific night of Saint Bartholomew, there were more victims of religious fanatism than of the Holy Office since its foun-dation to its fall (...) Nor does it equal in number, by Shacks confession, only the unhappy wit-ches burntalive in Germany just in the 17th century'. 6

With arguments of this kind, the central problem of the historic analysis became an ordinal matter. The speakers in the defense of the empire, successively disguised as apostolic, servile, moderate liberals, conservative, nationalists or simple right-wing, postulated the idea that Spain had been one of the first countries in the world in everything.

This was highlighted by Gumersindo Laverde, teacher and colleague of Menendez Pelayo, in an article-letter addressed to him, dated in Lugo on 30 September 1876, which can be considered as the catalyst for the Polemics of the Spanish Science [Menendez Pelayo, 1953-4, vol. 1, pp. 14-15]:

“If our science is so poor, why have the books and doctors explaining it been accepted so well everywhere? Does this not prove that we were not at the tail, but at the head”7 The progressive movements, using science as a field of battle, argued that Spain was the last in this field. Jos6 Echegaray (1832-191

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